Society, Culture & Social Order

Introduction

This chapter gathers the vocabulary Japanese uses to describe collective life: communities, values, hierarchy, custom, identity, and the social arrangements that shape public and private behaviour. These terms appear often in essays, commentary, and cultural criticism.

They help you understand how Japanese frames society not just as a group of people, but as a layered structure of roles, obligations, and shared assumptions.

Themes

All JLPT N1 Vocabulary in This Chapter (200)

1. 廃止 はいし Abolition; repeal; discontinuation. The formal ending or removal of a law, system, custom, or service.
2. 排斥 はいせき Exclusion; boycott; rejection; ostracism. The deliberate pushing away or exclusion of a person, group, or foreign entity.
3. 犯罪率 はんざいりつ Crime rate; the statistical frequency of crimes committed within a given population or area over a set period.
4. 陪審 ばいしん Jury; jury trial. A legal system in which a group of ordinary citizens participates in determining guilt or innocence.
5. ひきこもり ひきこもり Social withdrawal; recluse; hikikomori. A condition or person characterised by severe and prolonged withdrawal from social life and confi...
6. 被疑者 ひぎしゃ Suspect; accused; person under investigation. An individual who is suspected of committing a crime but has not yet been formally charged.
7. 被告人 ひこくにん Defendant; the accused. A person who has been formally indicted and is standing trial in a criminal case.
8. 被差別 ひさべつ Being discriminated against; oppressed status. Used to describe a group or individual who is or has been subjected to discrimination.
9. 風紀 ふうき Public morals; discipline; decency. The standards of moral conduct expected within a community, institution, or public sphere.
10. 風紀委員 ふうきいいん Public morals committee member; discipline officer. A student or official appointed to oversee conduct and enforce rules within a school ...
11. 風評被害 ふうひょうひがい Reputational damage; damage from rumours. Economic or social harm suffered as a result of unfounded or exaggerated negative rumours, rath...
12. 不義理 ふぎり Dishonesty; breach of faith; ingratitude. Failure to fulfil a social or moral obligation, especially to someone who has shown kindness.
13. 不祥事 ふしょうじ Scandal; disgraceful affair; misconduct. An incident of improper, unethical, or illegal behaviour by a person or organisation that causes...
14. 不登校 ふとうこう School refusal; truancy; absenteeism. A condition in which a child or adolescent repeatedly fails to attend school due to psychological, ...
15. 閉塞感 へいそくかん Sense of stagnation; feeling of being stuck; feeling of deadlock. A pervasive sense that society, an organisation, or one's personal circ...
16. 偏差値 へんさち Deviation value; standardised test score. A standardised score used in Japan's education system indicating how far a student's performanc...
17. 弁護 べんご Defence; advocacy; pleading. Speaking on behalf of another person to defend them from accusation or criticism, especially in a legal cont...
18. 法事 ほうじ Buddhist memorial service; religious ceremony. A Buddhist ritual held to pray for the repose of the deceased, typically on fixed annivers...
19. 奉納 ほうのう Offering; dedication; votive. The act of presenting something to a deity or shrine as a religious offering or dedication.
20. 本音 ほんね Real intention; true feelings; honest opinion. What a person genuinely thinks or feels, as opposed to what they say in public or for soci...
21. 暴行 ぼうこう Assault; violence; attack. The use of physical force against another person; a criminal act of physical violence.
22. 防犯 ぼうはん Crime prevention; security. Measures or efforts taken to prevent criminal activity or protect against crime.
23. 亡命 ぼうめい Exile; defection; seeking asylum. Fleeing one's own country, typically for political reasons, to seek refuge or protection in another cou...
24. 暴力 ぼうりょく Violence; force; brutality. The use of physical force to harm, coerce, or intimidate; also used broadly for any coercive or destructive f...
25. 撲滅 ぼくめつ Eradication; extermination; stamping out. The complete elimination of something harmful, such as a disease, crime, or social evil.
26. 菩薩 ぼさつ Bodhisattva; an enlightened being who delays nirvana out of compassion to guide others toward salvation.
27. 煩悩 ぼんのう Worldly desires; earthly passions; mental afflictions that cause suffering and bind beings to the cycle of rebirth.
28. 万引き まんびき Shoplifting; the act of stealing merchandise from a retail store without paying.
29. 見栄 みえ Vanity; keeping up appearances; concern for how one appears to others; putting on a show.
30. 身柄 みがら A person in legal custody; one's physical person as an object of custody or jurisdiction; a person's identity or whereabouts.
31. 未遂犯 みすいはん Attempted crime; a criminal act that was commenced but not completed.
32. 民衆 みんしゅう The people; the masses; the general public as a collective social force.
33. 民生委員 みんせいいいん Welfare commissioner; a volunteer community welfare officer appointed by the government to support vulnerable residents.
34. 無常 むじょう Impermanence; the Buddhist principle that all phenomena are transient and subject to change.
35. 名声 めいせい Fame; reputation; renown; the widespread recognition of a person's achievements or character.
36. 黙秘権 もくひけん The right to remain silent; the legal right of a suspect or accused person not to be compelled to speak or testify against themselves.
37. 喪中 もちゅう Mourning period; the period of bereavement during which traditional observances are kept after the death of a family member.
38. 模倣犯 もほうはん Copycat criminal; a person who commits a crime imitating a previous, often widely publicised, criminal act.
39. 門地 もんち Family status; lineage; birth; social rank determined by the family one is born into.
40. 厄年 やくどし Unlucky year; a critical year in a person's life traditionally believed to bring misfortune and requiring special religious caution.
41. 結納 ゆいのう Betrothal gift; formal engagement ceremony in which the groom's family presents gifts to the bride's family to formalise the marriage agr...
42. 養子縁組 ようしえんぐみ Adoption; the legal formation of a parent-child relationship between individuals not related by birth.
43. 拉致 らち Abduction; kidnapping; the forcible seizure and removal of a person against their will.
44. 利権 りけん Vested interests; concession; a privilege or right that yields financial or political benefit, often obtained through special connections.
45. 輪廻 りんね Samsara; the cycle of death and rebirth; reincarnation as a continuous cycle of existence driven by karma.
46. 連座 れんざ Being implicated in a crime or wrongdoing; guilt by association; suffering consequences due to one's relationship with a wrongdoer.
47. 連帯責任 れんたいせきにん Joint responsibility; collective liability; a situation where all members of a group share responsibility for an act or outcome.
48. 労働争議 ろうどうそうぎ Labour dispute; industrial action; a conflict between workers and management over wages, conditions, or rights.
49. 和議 わぎ Peace conference; compromise; a negotiated settlement or arrangement between parties in conflict.
50. インフラ インフラ Infrastructure; the fundamental physical and organisational systems that support society and the economy.
51. 悪徳 あくとく Wickedness; vice; corruption; moral depravity. Refers to unethical conduct or character marked by immorality and dishonesty.
52. 圧力団体 あつりょくだんたい Pressure group; lobbying group; interest group. An organised body that seeks to influence government policy or public opinion in favour o...
53. 天下り あまくだり Descent from heaven; the practice of retired senior government officials taking lucrative positions in the private sector or in corporati...
54. 委員会 いいんかい Committee; commission; board. A formal body of people appointed or elected to perform a specific function within an organisation or gover...
55. 意識調査 いしきちょうさ Opinion poll; attitude survey; awareness survey. A systematic inquiry into what a population thinks, feels, or knows about a particular i...
56. 慰謝料 いしゃりょう Consolation money; damages; financial compensation paid as reparation for emotional distress, injury, or suffering caused by another party.
57. 一揆 いっき Revolt; uprising; rebellion. Historically refers to collective uprisings by peasants or commoners against ruling authorities during Japan...
58. 隠蔽 いんぺい Cover-up; concealment; suppression. The deliberate hiding or obscuring of information, evidence, or wrongdoing.
59. 打ち首 うちくび Beheading; decapitation; capital punishment by decapitation. A method of execution historically used in Japan.
60. 冤罪 えんざい False charge; wrongful conviction; miscarriage of justice. Being charged, prosecuted, or convicted of a crime one did not commit.
61. 生い立ち おいたち One's upbringing; personal history; background. The circumstances and environment in which a person grew up.
62. 汚名 おめい Bad reputation; stigma; dishonour; infamy. A name or reputation tarnished by scandal, failure, or wrongdoing.
63. 恩義 おんぎ Indebtedness; a sense of obligation arising from a favour or kindness received; moral duty to repay someone's goodwill.
64. 恩赦 おんしゃ Amnesty; pardon; clemency. An official act by which the state forgives or mitigates the punishment of convicted persons, typically markin...
65. 過干渉 かかんしょう Overintervention; excessive meddling; being overbearing in another's affairs, especially in a parent-child or professional context.
66. 加害 かがい Inflicting harm; perpetration; the act of causing injury, damage, or loss to another person.
67. 核家族 かくかぞく Nuclear family. A family unit consisting of parents (or a single parent) and their dependent children, living together without extended f...
68. 格差社会 かくさしゃかい A society with widening inequality; a stratified society marked by large and growing gaps in income, wealth, or opportunity between diffe...
69. 格差是正 かくさぜせい Correction of disparities; reducing inequality; policies or efforts aimed at narrowing gaps in income, wealth, education, or opportunity.
70. 格式 かくしき Social standing; formality; prestige; the established conventions and decorum associated with a particular class, institution, or occasion.
71. 格付け かくづけ Rating; ranking; classification; grading. The act of assigning a rank or grade to something based on evaluated criteria.
72. 過疎化 かそか Depopulation; the process by which a region loses population, typically through outmigration to urban areas, resulting in sparse settleme...
73. 過疎地域 かそちいき Depopulated area; underpopulated region. An area designated as having significantly declined in population, typically a rural or remote d...
74. 家督 かとく Family headship; the right and responsibility of succession to a family's estate, name, and assets, formerly held by the eldest son under...
75. 過保護 かほご Overprotective; overindulgent; an excessive degree of care or sheltering that prevents the development of independence, especially in a p...
76. 過密 かみつ Overcrowding; excessive congestion or density. Used to describe overpopulated areas, overburdened schedules, or overcrowded facilities.
77. 仮釈放 かりしゃくほう Parole; conditional release of a prisoner before completing a full sentence, subject to good behaviour and compliance with conditions.
78. 環境汚染 かんきょうおせん Environmental pollution; the contamination of natural environments by harmful substances, industrial waste, or human activity.
79. 冠婚葬祭 かんこんそうさい The four major ceremonial occasions in Japanese life: coming-of-age, weddings, funerals, and ancestral rites. Collectively refers to impo...
80. 帰依 きえ Devotion; spiritual conversion; taking refuge in the Three Jewels of Buddhism — the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
81. 棄民 きみん Abandoned people; citizens or subjects forsaken by the state or ruling authority, left without protection, support, or recognition.
82. 教育委員会 きょういくいいんかい Board of education; the administrative body overseeing public education at the prefectural or municipal level in Japan.
83. 教化 きょうか Edification; moral instruction and enlightenment. The process of guiding people toward ethical, spiritual, or intellectual improvement.
84. 恐喝 きょうかつ Blackmail; extortion; the act of threatening someone to obtain money, property, or compliance through fear and intimidation.
85. 強権 きょうけん Coercive power; strong-arm authority; power exercised forcefully without regard for individual rights or consent.
86. 共助 きょうじょ Mutual aid; the principle of people helping each other within a community or group, as one of the three pillars of social support alongsi...
87. 共生 きょうせい Coexistence; symbiosis; the state of different individuals, communities, or species living together in mutual harmony or interdependence.
88. 矯正 きょうせい Correction; the act of rectifying a fault, deviation, or criminal behaviour. Also used for orthodontic treatment and physical correction ...
89. 共同体 きょうどうたい Community; a group of people sharing common interests, geography, identity, or purpose and functioning as a cohesive collective unit.
90. 共犯 きょうはん Complicity; joint crime; participation in a criminal act alongside another person. Also refers to an accomplice or co-offender.
91. 恐怖政治 きょうふせいじ Reign of terror; a system of governance maintained through violence, intimidation, and fear rather than consent, law, or legitimacy.
92. 極刑 きょっけい Capital punishment; the most severe penalty available under the law; the death sentence.
93. 近代化 きんだいか Modernisation; the transformation of a society, institution, or system in accordance with modern standards of technology, economy, govern...
94. 偽善 ぎぜん Hypocrisy; the practice of pretending to hold moral beliefs or virtues that one does not actually possess or follow.
95. 偽装 ぎそう Disguise; camouflage; deliberate misrepresentation of one's identity, the nature of a product, or the terms of a contract.
96. 義務教育 ぎむきょういく Compulsory education; the legally mandated period of schooling that all children must attend, comprising elementary and middle school in ...
97. 義理 ぎり Social duty; obligation rooted in relationships and social norms rather than personal desire or law. A felt sense of indebtedness or cour...
98. 空洞化 くうどうか Hollowing out; the process by which the core substance, industry, or population of something is removed, leaving an empty shell.
99. 草の根 くさのね Grassroots; originating from or involving ordinary citizens at the local or community level, as opposed to elite institutions or top-down...
100. 口利き くちきき Mediation; intercession; influence peddling. Using personal connections or position to facilitate something for another, often implying i...
101. 口止め くちどめ Gag order; silencing; hushing up. The act of ordering or pressuring someone to keep silent about something.
102. 黒幕 くろまく Mastermind; wire-puller; behind-the-scenes power. A person who pulls strings from the shadows without appearing directly involved.
103. 愚民 ぐみん Ignorant masses; uneducated people. A derogatory term for people regarded as lacking education or political awareness.
104. 慶弔 けいちょう Celebrations and condolences; happy and sad occasions. A paired term covering the full range of major life events.
105. 啓発 けいはつ Enlightenment; edification; awareness-raising. The act of broadening someone's understanding or inspiring new insight.
106. 啓蒙 けいもう Enlightenment; education; raising awareness. The intellectual or moral education of people, especially those deemed uninformed.
107. 解脱 げだつ Liberation; emancipation; moksha; nirvana. The state of being freed from earthly suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
108. 限界集落 げんかいしゅうらく Marginal settlement; dying village. A rural community where over half the population is aged 65 or older, and whose continued existence i...
109. 減税 げんぜい Tax reduction; tax cut. A decrease in the amount of tax levied on individuals or businesses.
110. 公益 こうえき Public interest; public benefit; the common good. Actions or policies that serve society at large rather than private interests.
111. 拘置所 こうちしょ Detention centre; holding facility; jail. A facility where suspects or defendants are held before or during trial, distinct from a prison...
112. 香典 こうでん Condolence gift; funeral offering; incense money. Cash given in a special envelope to bereaved families to help cover funeral expenses.
113. 公徳心 こうとくしん Public morality; civic virtue; public spirit. A sense of responsibility and consideration for others in shared spaces and public life.
114. 興亡 こうぼう Rise and fall; ups and downs. The cycle of flourishing and decline experienced by nations, civilisations, dynasties, or organisations.
115. 拘留 こうりゅう Detention; custody; confinement. The legally authorised holding of a person, especially before trial or as a minor criminal penalty.
116. 功労 こうろう Meritorious service; distinguished contribution. Exceptional achievement or effort in service of an organisation, cause, or nation.
117. 告知 こくち Notification; announcement; notice. The formal or official act of informing someone of something important.
118. 告発 こくはつ Denunciation; accusation; exposure; indictment. The act of formally reporting or publicly accusing someone of wrongdoing.
119. 孤食 こしょく Eating alone; solitary meals. The practice or phenomenon of eating without the company of others.
120. 根絶 こんぜつ Eradication; extermination; rooting out. The complete and permanent elimination of something harmful.
121. 互助 ごじょ Mutual aid; mutual help. A system or spirit of members of a community helping one another reciprocally.
122. 御利益 ごりやく Divine blessing; benefit; grace. A benefit, good fortune, or miraculous effect believed to be bestowed by a deity or Buddha.
123. 再審 さいしん Retrial; review; rehearing. The reopening of a concluded legal case in light of new evidence or judicial error.
124. 再犯 さいはん Second offence; recidivism; relapse into crime. Committing a crime again after having been convicted and punished once before.
125. 詐欺 さぎ Fraud; swindle; scam; deception. The deliberate use of deceit to obtain money, property, or benefit from another person.
126. 搾取 さくしゅ Exploitation; extraction of labour or resources for one-sided gain. Describes taking unfair advantage of workers or the vulnerable.
127. 悟り さとり Enlightenment; realisation; spiritual awakening. Refers to a deep understanding that transcends ordinary knowledge.
128. 参政権 さんせいけん Suffrage; the right to participate in government. Encompasses the right to vote, stand for election, and engage in political processes.
129. 参拝 さんぱい Worship; visiting a shrine or temple to pay respects. A formal act of prayer or veneration at a religious site.
130. 在日 ざいにち Residing in Japan; foreign residents in Japan. Often refers specifically to ethnic Koreans and Chinese who are long-term residents.
131. しきたり しきたり Custom; convention; established practice. Refers to traditional ways of doing things that are expected and observed by a community.
132. 七五三 しちごさん Shichi-go-san; a traditional Japanese celebration held for children aged 3, 5, and 7. Marks important milestones in a child's growth.
133. 市民運動 しみんうんどう Citizens' movement; civic activism. Refers to organised grassroots efforts by ordinary citizens to influence policy or social change.
134. 社会保障 しゃかいほしょう Social security; social welfare. The system of government programmes providing economic support for citizens in need.
135. 祝儀 しゅうぎ Celebration; congratulatory gift; monetary gift. Refers to a gift of money given at celebratory occasions such as weddings.
136. 就労 しゅうろう Employment; working; gaining employment. Refers to the act of entering or engaging in paid work.
137. 修行 しゅぎょう Training; ascetic practice; discipline. Refers to rigorous self-cultivation through hardship, often in a religious or martial context.
138. 主犯 しゅはん Principal offender; ringleader; mastermind. The person most responsible for planning or leading a crime.
139. 証言 しょうげん Testimony; evidence; witness statement. An account given under oath or in an official context to establish facts.
140. 精進 しょうじん Devotion; diligent effort; Buddhist vegetarian diet. Refers to single-minded dedication to practice, or the abstention from meat in relig...
141. 職権乱用 しょっけんらんよう Abuse of authority; misuse of power. The wrongful use of one's official position or powers for personal or improper ends.
142. 所得格差 しょとくかくさ Income disparity; income inequality. The gap in earnings between different segments of society.
143. 書類送検 しょるいそうけん Referral to prosecutors without arrest; submitting case documents to the public prosecutor's office without detaining the suspect.
144. 自首 じしゅ Turning oneself in; voluntary surrender to authorities. When a suspect voluntarily reports their own crime to the police.
145. 自浄作用 じじょうさよう Self-cleansing; self-purification; the capacity of a system to correct or clean itself without external intervention.
146. 慈善 じぜん Charity; philanthropy; benevolence. Acts of giving or kindness towards those in need, often through organised donations.
147. 示談 じだん Out-of-court settlement; private compromise. An agreement reached directly between parties to resolve a dispute without going to trial.
148. 児童虐待 じどうぎゃくたい Child abuse; child maltreatment. The physical, emotional, or sexual abuse or neglect of children.
149. 児童福祉 じどうふくし Child welfare; the promotion of children's health, development, and protection by the state and society.
150. 自発的 じはつてき Voluntary; spontaneous; self-motivated. Done on one's own initiative without external compulsion or instruction.
151. 従犯 じゅうはん Accessory; accomplice; secondary offender. A person who aids or abets a crime without being the principal perpetrator.
152. 住民投票 じゅうみんとうひょう Local referendum; plebiscite. A direct vote by residents of a municipality or region on a specific issue.
153. 女性蔑視 じょせいべっし Misogyny; sexism; contempt for women. An attitude or behaviour that demeans or discriminates against women.
154. 人権 じんけん Human rights; civil rights. The fundamental rights and freedoms to which every person is inherently entitled.
155. 人口減少 じんこうげんしょう Population decline; depopulation. The reduction in the total number of inhabitants of a region over time.
156. 人身売買 じんしんばいばい Human trafficking; slave trade. The illegal trade and exploitation of human beings for labour, sex, or organs.
157. 衰退 すいたい Decline; decay; degeneration; waning. The gradual weakening or deterioration of a nation, industry, culture, or organisation.
158. 棲み分け すみわけ Coexistence through niche differentiation; ecological separation; living apart without direct competition.
159. 寸志 すんし Small token of appreciation; modest gift; gratuity. A modest offering given as a gesture of gratitude, used as a humble expression.
160. 生活保護 せいかつほご Welfare; public assistance; livelihood protection. The Japanese government programme providing income support to people below the minimum...
161. 成人式 せいじんしき Coming-of-age ceremony. The official ceremony held in Japan for young people turning twenty (now eighteen).
162. 世間知らず せけんしらず Ignorant of the ways of the world; naive; inexperienced; unworldly.
163. 世間体 せけんてい Public appearances; social reputation; face; how one is perceived by society.
164. 世襲 せしゅう Hereditary succession; passing down a position, title, or business through a family lineage.
165. 世代交代 せだいこうたい Generational change; changing of the guard; the replacement of one generation by the next in leadership or culture.
166. 窃盗 せっとう Theft; larceny; stealing. The criminal act of taking another's property without consent and with intent to deprive.
167. 先住民 せんじゅうみん Indigenous people; native inhabitants; first peoples. The original inhabitants of a land before colonisation or displacement.
168. 潜入 せんにゅう Infiltration; going undercover; sneaking into a place or organisation covertly.
169. 前科 ぜんか Criminal record; prior conviction. A formal record of previous criminal convictions held against a person.
170. 送検 そうけん Sending a case to the public prosecutor; referral for prosecution. The procedural transfer of a case from police to the prosecutor's office.
171. 相互扶助 そうごふじょ Mutual aid; mutual assistance; helping one another. The principle of members of a community supporting each other reciprocally.
172. 疎開 そかい Evacuation; dispersal; the wartime relocation of people from cities to rural areas to avoid bombing.
173. 疎外 そがい Alienation; estrangement; exclusion. The experience of feeling isolated from society, community, or one's own work.
174. 齟齬をきたす そごをきたす To be at odds; to cause a discrepancy; to produce a mismatch or contradiction between expectations and reality.
175. 忖度 そんたく Surmising another's intentions; reading the room; acting in anticipation of what a superior desires without being explicitly told.
176. 増税 ぞうぜい Tax increase; tax hike. A rise in the rate or scope of taxation imposed by the government.
177. 族議員 ぞくぎいん Politician allied with a special interest group; policy tribe member. A lawmaker who consistently champions a particular industry or mini...
178. 建前 たてまえ Official stance; public position; stated principle; facade. The position one presents in public, which may differ from one's true feelings.
179. 多文化 たぶんか Multicultural; multiethnic. Pertaining to or encompassing multiple cultures or ethnicities.
180. 多様性 たようせい Diversity; variety; multiplicity. The quality of being varied and encompassing many different types or perspectives.
181. 脱税 だつぜい Tax evasion; illegal avoidance of tax obligations.
182. 弾圧 だんあつ Oppression; suppression; crackdown. Forcible repression of people, movements, or dissent by authority.
183. 檀家 だんか Temple supporter; parishioner of a Buddhist temple. A household or family affiliated with a specific Buddhist temple for ancestral rites.
184. 談合 だんごう Bid-rigging; collusion; secret agreement among competitors to fix prices or determine a winner before a formal tender.
185. 地域格差 ちいきかくさ Regional disparity; regional inequality. The gap in wealth, services, or opportunities between different areas of the country.
186. 地域活性化 ちいきかっせいか Regional revitalisation; community development. Efforts to reinvigorate and sustain the economic and social vitality of local areas.
187. 中間層 ちゅうかんそう Middle class; middle stratum. The broad social layer between the wealthy elite and the economically disadvantaged.
188. 町内会 ちょうないかい Neighbourhood association; residents' association. A grassroots civic body that coordinates local activities and mutual aid within a defi...
189. 徴兵 ちょうへい Conscription; military draft. The compulsory enlistment of citizens into the armed forces.
190. 鎮魂 ちんこん Repose of souls; requiem; pacification of spirits. Rituals or prayers offered to calm and comfort the spirits of the dead.
191. 通報 つうほう Report; notification; tip-off; alert. The act of formally reporting information to an authority or relevant party.
192. 飛び地 とびち Enclave; exclave; detached territory. A piece of land belonging to one jurisdiction that is surrounded by or separated from the main terr...
193. 弔い とむらい Funeral; memorial service; mourning; condolence. The act of paying respects and performing rites for the deceased.
194. 動員 どういん Mobilisation; rallying; turnout. The act of assembling and organising people or resources for a collective purpose.
195. 奴隷 どれい Slave; person in slavery; one subjected to servitude. Also used figuratively for extreme subjugation.
196. 馴れ合い なれあい Collusion; cosiness; mutual back-scratching. An overly comfortable, uncritical relationship between parties who should maintain independe...
197. 軟禁 なんきん House arrest; soft detention; confinement to a specific location without formal imprisonment.
198. 捏造 ねつぞう Fabrication; forgery; falsification. The deliberate invention or falsification of facts, data, or evidence.
199. 根回し ねまわし Groundwork; behind-the-scenes consensus building. The practice of consulting key stakeholders individually before a formal decision to en...
200. 年金 ねんきん Pension; annuity. A regular payment made to retired or disabled persons, typically by the state or a private fund.